Éamon de Valera

Eamon de Valera played a pivotal role in shaping Ireland’s history during the 20th century. Born in New York City in 1882 to a Spanish father and an Irish mother, de Valera was sent to County Limerick, Ireland, at a young age after his father’s death. He received his education in Ireland, eventually becoming a mathematics teacher and a fervent supporter of the Irish-language revival.

De Valera’s involvement in Irish politics began in 1913 when he joined the Irish Volunteers, a group organised to resist British opposition to Home Rule for Ireland. He gained prominence during the Easter Rising of 1916, commanding an occupied building and becoming the last commander to surrender. Due to his American birth, he escaped execution but was sentenced to penal servitude.

After his release in 1917, de Valera was elected president of Sinn Féin and led the party to a landslide victory in the 1918 general election. Controversially, he travelled to America during the Irish War of Independence and delegated the ceasefire negotiations with Britain to others, allowing him to ultimately reject the treaty that established the Irish Free State.

De Valera’s political career continued as he led the opposition to the Irish Free State government during the civil war. Despite imprisonment, he organized the Fianna Fáil party, which entered Dáil Éireann in 1927, advocating for the abolition of the oath of allegiance and other changes.

In 1932, Fianna Fáil defeated the incumbent government, and de Valera became Taoiseach. During his time in office, he focused on severing connections with Britain, withholding payment of land annuities and engaging in a disastrous “economic war” to achieve national self-sufficiency.

In 1937, de Valera oversaw the ratification of a new constitution that transformed the Irish Free State into Ireland, a sovereign and independent democracy. He also negotiated the Anglo-Irish defence agreement, ensuring Ireland’s neutrality during World War II while providing covert assistance to the Allies.

De Valera’s political dominance continued until 1948 when opposition parties formed a coalition government. However, he returned to power in 1951 and served multiple terms as Taoiseach and President of Ireland until his retirement in 1973. His tenure is associated with extreme social conservatism, reactionary fiscal policies and docility to the Catholic church. He passed away in 1975, leaving behind a legacy as the dominant figure of mid-20th century Ireland.

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James Connolly

James Connolly was an Irish republican, socialist, and trade union leader who played a significant role in the 1916 Easter Rising against British rule in Ireland, ultimately being executed for his involvement. Born in Scotland in 1868 to Irish parents, Connolly became involved in socialism and moved to Ireland in 1896, where he established the country’s first socialist party, advocating for Irish independence from both British rule and British capitalism.

Connolly’s early life was marked by hardship and military service, but he eventually found his calling in socialist activism. His involvement in the Dublin lock-out of 1913 and his leadership in the ICA exemplified his commitment to workers’ rights and Irish independence.

From 1905 to 1910, Connolly organized for the Industrial Workers of the World in the United States, focusing on syndicalism over doctrinaire Marxism. Upon his return to Ireland, he worked alongside James Larkin in organizing the Irish Transport and General Workers Union.

Connolly’s efforts to unify Protestant and Catholic workers in Belfast were unsuccessful, but the 1913 industrial unrest in Dublin provided a new avenue for his socialist vision. He committed the Irish Citizen Army (ICA), a union militia, to support the Irish Republican Brotherhood’s plans for an insurrection in 1916.

In the lead-up to the Easter Rising, Connolly’s support for armed resistance against British rule intensified. He played a crucial role in planning and executing the rebellion, despite disagreements with other leaders over strategy and tactics.

During the Easter Rising, Connolly commanded the ICA from the General Post Office in Dublin. Despite being wounded, he played a significant role until the rebels surrendered. Alongside six other leaders, he was executed for his part in the rebellion.

Following the failure of the uprising and his subsequent execution, Connolly became a symbol of resistance and martyrdom for Irish nationalists. His death, along with other rebel leaders, sparked outrage and condemnation both in Ireland and abroad, ultimately contributing to a shift in public opinion towards independence.

Throughout his life, he maintained connections to both Scotland and Ireland, embodying a unique blend of Irish nationalism and international socialism. James Connolly remains an iconic figure in Irish history, revered for his unwavering dedication to the cause of Irish freedom and social justice.

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Oliver Cromwell

Oliver Cromwell served as Lord Protector of the Commonwealth of England, Scotland, and Ireland until his death in 1658. Often characterized as ruthless, he led successful efforts to remove the British monarch from power, earning him the label of a dictator. Cromwell, a devout Puritan, harbored strong intolerance towards Catholics and Quakers, yet some credit him with steering Great Britain towards constitutional governance.

Born into wealth in 1599 near Cambridge, Cromwell married into a Puritan family and later joined the sect. Despite his political success, he faced financial troubles and struggled with depression. Cromwell entered Parliament in 1628, but King Charles I’s suspension of the legislative body in 1629 cut short his tenure until it reconvened in 1640 due to rebellion.

The outbreak of the English Civil War in 1642 thrust Cromwell into military leadership despite lacking formal training. He distinguished himself in battles like Edgehill and Naseby, rising to prominence within the Parliamentarian forces. His religious fervour and belief in divine support fueled his actions, including the harsh siege of Catholic stronghold Basing House.

After Parliament’s victory in the First English Civil War, Cromwell negotiated unsuccessfully with Royalists, leading to the outbreak of the Second Civil War in 1648. Following the decisive Parliamentarian win, Cromwell played a key role in the execution of Charles I during Pride’s Purge, leading to a shift in Parliament’s composition.

Cromwell’s military campaigns extended to Ireland, where his forces engaged in brutal massacres at Drogheda and Wexford, leading to the confiscation of Catholic-owned land and persecution of Irish Catholics.

In March 1649, Westminster appointed Oliver Cromwell to lead an invasion of Ireland in order to crush all resistance to the new English Commonwealth and to avenge the alleged massacres of Protestant settlers in 1641-2. Irish land was also a valuable commodity, almost 70% of which was still held by Catholic landowners. Cromwell arrived in August, with 12,000 troops and a formidable train of siege artillery. Over the next four years his army defeated most military opposition in a series of bloody sieges and battles, which included notorious massacres at Drogheda and Wexford in late 1649. Catholic Irish resistance proved very stubborn and the English army resorted to scorched earth tactics to deny the enemy any sustenance or shelter. Between 1650 and 1652 Ireland suffered a demographic disaster with at least 25% of the population dying as a result of deliberately induced famine, which also encouraged the spread of diseases such as dysentery and the plague.

By 1653, when the last formal surrenders of the war took place, the country had been devastated, the population decimated, the economic infrastructure destroyed. 

Cromwell’s death in 1658 paved the way for his son Richard to assume power briefly, but his lack of support led to his resignation. George Monck’s actions initiated the restoration of the monarchy in 1660, with Charles II ascending the throne. Cromwell’s posthumous fate saw his body exhumed, beheaded, and displayed, symbolizing the triumph of the monarchy over his republican ideals.

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